Goats exhibit highly adaptive feeding behaviour that distinguishes them from other domestic livestock. As browsers, they can forage in a bipedal stance about 8% of feeding time allowing access to diverse vegetation (Pfister et al., 1988). Their narrow oral aperture and shorter jaw enhance dietary selectivity and chewing efficiency, enabling rapid harvesting of small leaves. They also use their muzzle to avoid ingesting leaves with web worms (Berman et al., 2017). When transitioning from open-range browsing to green forage or concentrates, goats require 2–3 weeks for dietary and rumen adaptation. In confined systems, limited feeding space can increase aggression (Jorgensen et al., 2007). Their tolerance to high tannin levels is linked to salivary proteins and rumen microbes (Silanikove et al., 1996). Overall, goats feeding behaviour reflects adaptability, selectivity, and efficiency, supporting survival, welfare, and productivity.

Goats are social animals with dynamic fission–fusion groups, forming stable cliques of 12–13 individuals and clear dominance hierarchies (Stantley & Dunbar, 2013). Larger groups are more defensive, more socially active, and spend less time resting than smaller ones (Calhim et al., 2006; AWIN, 2015). Horn size influences rank, with males often dominating females (Shi & Dunbar, 2006). Agonistic behaviours, including physical contact and threats, are natural and help maintain hierarchies and access to resources (Blanchard et al., 1993; Miranda-de la Lama & Mattiello, 2010).

Cognition in goats involves perception, memory, learning, and decision-making (Shettleworth, 2010). Goats are curious problem-solvers with long-term memory, retaining solutions for up to 10 months (Briefer et al., 2014), and display contrafreeloading, preferring to work for rewards even when freely available (Rosenberger et al., 2020). They understand object permanence and use social learning, recognizing individuals and responding to others’ attention and intentions (Nawroth et al., 2015).

Feral goats use natural shelters like caves for safety, weather, and predator protection, and kids instinctively hide after birth (Stachowicz et al., 2019; Lickliter, 1984). In commercial systems, hiding opportunities are rare, yet goats still seek concealed areas to rest or avoid social tension, especially in large groups (Zobel et al., 2017, 2019). Providing sheltered and hiding spaces supports natural behaviour and reduces aggression (Boe & Ehrlenbruch, 2013).

Goats are natural climbers with strong limbs and excellent balance, enabling them to scale rocks and trees. They prefer resting alone or in pairs, often near walls or solid structures rather than in open spaces, likely for security from predators. During the breeding season, bucks display pronounced sexual behaviours such as strong odour emission, tongue flapping, and urinating on their beard and mouth as signals to females and rivals (Fritz, 2017). Female social hierarchy also affects reproduction, with dominant does displacing subordinates and lower-ranking individuals often ovulating later (Alvarez et al., 2003). A single buck can typically inseminate many does in one season. Goat gestation lasts about 150 days, and twins are common depending on genetics and nutrition (Shi et al., 2003). After birth, the dam licks the kid to stimulate and bond, recognising it within hours through vocal and scent cues (Terrazas et al., 2003). Kids follow a “hider” strategy for up to a week before joining their mothers and forming peer groups (O’Brien, 1984).

Environmental enrichment involves modifying an animal’s environment to promote natural behaviors, cognitive stimulation, and reduced stress (Veissier et al., 2024). It enhances physical health, cognitive abilities, and coping skills (Dickson et al., 2024), and is especially important in livestock to counteract stress and behavioral restrictions from conventional husbandry, particularly during sensitive stages like weaning (Lee, Oh, & Kim, 2025). In goats, environmental enrichment (EE) improves behavior. In dwarf goats, structural and cognitive enrichment increased activity, competence, and curiosity, though cortisol levels stayed similar (Clark, 2017). Turkish Saanen kids in enriched pens with ramps, barrels, and tires showed more exploratory behaviors after weaning (Tölü et al., 2016).

Goats naturally browse at various heights, but floor-level feeders limit this behaviour. Elevated feeders, which require goats to raise their head and neck, increase dry matter intake (0.34 kg vs 0.18 kg) and support natural feeding behaviour, improving welfare (Neave et al., 2018). Aligning feeding systems with natural browsing may also reduce parasite risk and enhance vigilance (Lu, 1988). Key indicators of good feeding include optimal body condition, a healthy coat, and normal feeder/drinker behaviour (Battini et al., 2014).

Human-animal relationships (HAR) describe how animals perceive and respond to humans, from fear and avoidance to positive contact (Waiblinger et al., 2006; Claxton, 2011). Evaluating HAR helps improve welfare, as calm and frequent human interactions reduce fear, aggression, and flight responses in goats (Miller et al., 2018). Positive HAR also facilitates handling, increases stockperson satisfaction, and should be treated as an essential part of routine husbandry (Beaujouan et al., 2021; Celozzi et al., 2022).

Goats naturally form small, flexible social groups, but commercial dairy systems often house very large herds, which can increase aggression and stress (Zobel et al., 2019). Herd size and stocking density affect social behaviour, resting, and welfare, with adequate space (3–4.5 m² per adult) and open areas supporting normal movement, exploration, and positive interactions (Miranda-de la Lama & Mattiello, 2010; Thakur et al., 2017). Introducing goats to unfamiliar herds can trigger aggression, reduce productivity, and increase injury risk. Proper housing, including clean bedding and comfortable resting surfaces, is essential for welfare, while behavioural indicators help monitor comfort and detect problems early.