One of Ethiopia's most popular and varied agroforestry systems is the home garden, which is especially prevalent in the Southern Nations, Nationalities, and Peoples' Region (SNNPR). Fruits (such as mango, avocado, and banana), vegetables, root crops, spices, medicinal plants, and livestock are all part of these multi-strata systems that surround homesteads and are covered by trees (Tesfaye et al., 2005; Abebe, 2005). They improve household resilience and dietary diversity by offering year-round food, income, fuel wood and therapeutic items. According to Abebe (2005), home gardens in SNNPR supported significant biodiversity with over 30 plant species per garden and in some regions produced more than 50% of total household income.

In the semiarid lowlands, especially in Oromia, Amhara, and portions of Tigray, parkland systems predominate. The purposeful preservation of sporadic trees like Faidherbia albida, Acacia tortilis, and Balanites aegyptiaca on farmed areas is what distinguishes these systems. In addition to supplying fire wood, shade, and fodder, the trees help improve soil fertility by fixing nitrogen and adding organic matter (Eshete et al., 2011; Asfaw & Lemenih, 2010). According to research by Asfaw and Lemenih (2010), increased soil fertility and microclimatic control beneath F. albida canopies can result in crop yields that are up to 30% higher.

In Ethiopia, boundary planting is common, particularly in regions where there is a shortage of land and animals. As living fences or boundary markers, species including Millettia ferruginea, Cordia africana, Erythrina brucei, and Sesbania sesban are employed. These species provide a variety of uses, such as windbreaks, firewood, fodder, and increased soil fertility (Kindu et al., 2014; Linger, 2014). According to Linger (2014), border trees helped to lessen land degradation in the Ethiopian highlands and made a substantial contribution to on-farm biodiversity.

In Ethiopia's highlands and lowlands, silvopastoral systems which combine trees with grazing areas are being encouraged more and more. According to Worku et al. (2012), these systems increase the supply of fodder, boost animal productivity, and lessen the strain on natural forests. Calliandra calothyrsus, Chamaecytisus palmensis , and Leucaena leucocephala are common tree species. Worku et al. (2012) claim that silvopastoral systems promoted pasture regeneration in degraded areas and increased livestock productivity by 20–40%.

In agrosilvicultural systems, trees are incorporated with annual crops including teff, wheat, barley, and maize. The Amhara and Oromia regions' highlands are home to many of these systems. Multipurpose tree species that offer shade, mulch, fuel wood, and timber, such as Cordia africana, Grevillea robusta, and Albizia gummifera, are frequently incorporated by farmers (Mekonnen et al., 2014; Tadesse et al., 2016). According to Mekonnen et al. (2014), agrosilvicultural farms outperformed traditional monoculture plots in terms of crop productivity and soil organic carbon.

By incorporating fruit trees, vegetables, and multipurpose native species into agricultural systems, agroforestry increases food supply and improves nutritional diversity. Growing in homesteads and farm boundaries in Ethiopia are species including Moringa stenopetala, Persea americana (avocado), Mangifera indica (mango), and Malus domestica (apple), which augment staple foods and provide year-round nourishment (Abebe, 2005; Kindu et al., 2014). For example, Moringa stenopetala is well known for its high nutritional content, which includes iron, calcium, and vitamins A and C nutrients that are frequently deficient in rural diets (Fentahun & Hager, 2009). Furthermore, more than 30 kinds of edible plants have been demonstrated to thrive in home garden agroforestry systems, guaranteeing a consistent and varied food supply all year round (Tesfaye, 2005).

Because agroforestry makes it possible to produce lumber, fuel wood, honey, medicinal plants, and non- timber forest products (NTFPs), it diversifies farm income. Multiple species and products increase resilience against market swings and climate shocks by reducing reliance on a single crop and giving households other sources of income (Mbow et al., 2014; Mekonnen et al., 2014). Linger (2014) states that Ethiopian smallholders reported making a substantial profit from the sale of fruits, poles, and honey, especially from species like Ziziphus spina- christi and Cordia africana. Agroforestry in the southwestern and southern regions accounted for as much as 40% of household income (Abebe, 2005).

Employment in rural areas is directly and indirectly supported by agroforestry. In rural Ethiopia, wage labour and self-employment opportunities are offered by activities such nursery development, seedling sales, tree planting, fodder gathering, pruning, and the processing of agroforestry products (e.g., drying, oil extraction, and honey harvesting) (FAO, 2013; GIZ, 2019). According to Gebrehiwot et al. (2016), community-based agroforestry businesses gave women and young people seasonal work, particularly in highland areas that were being restored. In many areas, nursery operations with the help of regional cooperatives and non-governmental organizations have emerged as sustainable sources of employment and revenue.

Leucaena leucocephala, Faidherbia albida, and Sesbania sesban are examples of leguminous trees that are included into agroforestry to improve soil health. These plants increase organic matter through litter fall, lower erosion, and raise soil nitrogen levels (Kindu et al., 2014; Worku et al., 2012). During the cropping season, the leaves of the commonly utilised species Faidherbia albida shed, enabling sunshine to enter and recycling nutrients. According to studies, maize yields in canopy areas are 20–30% higher than in open f ields (Asfaw & Lemenih, 2010) . Furthermore, by reducing reliance on synthetic fertilizers, these systems help smallholders save their production costs (Mekonnen et al., 2014).

Climate change, largely driven by increasing greenhouse gas concentrations particularly carbon dioxide (CO₂) from deforestation and land-use change poses significant challenges to agricultural productivity and ecosystem stability (IPCC, 2022). Although terrestrial ecosystems function as major carbon sinks by storing carbon in biomass and soils, their capacity has been significantly reduced due to ongoing land degradation (FAO, 2022). In this context, agroforestry has emerged as a climate-smart land-use system that contributes to climate change mitigation by enhancing carbon sequestration. It achieves this through carbon fixation in tree biomass, long-term storage in woody components, and improvements in soil organic carbon through litter deposition and root turnover (Duguma et al., 2021). Empirical studies indicate that agroforestry systems sequester approximately 1.5–3.5 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, which is substantially higher than conventional croplands that typically store less than 1 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (Lasco et al., 2014; Kuyah et al., 2016). In tropical regions such as Ethiopia, total carbon storage in agroforestry systems ranges from 50 to 150 Mg C ha⁻¹ depending on species composition and management practices (Mbow et al., 2014).

Beyond mitigation, agroforestry also plays a critical role in climate change adaptation by enhancing farm resilience to climate variability. Tree components improve microclimatic conditions by moderating temperature extremes, reducing evapotranspiration, and enhancing soil moisture retention. Additionally, agroforestry systems diversify farm outputs, thereby reducing farmers' vulnerability to climate-related risks and stabilizing crop production under stress conditions. Species such as Faidherbia albida, Cordia africana, and Grevillea robusta are particularly effective due to their high biomass production, nitrogen-fixing capacity, and adaptability. Structurally complex systems such as parklands and homegardens further enhance both carbon storage and resilience through their multi-layered vegetation. Moreover, tropical agroforestry systems generally exhibit higher carbon sequestration potential than temperate systems due to faster growth rates and year-round productivity, making them especially suitable for climate resilience in regions like Ethiopia (Mbow et al., 2014).

One of the biggest obstacles to agroforestry investment in Ethiopia is still unclear land tenure agreements. Long-term expenditures like planting trees are discouraged in many rural areas since land is either temporarily granted by the state or retained under communal ownership. Farmers are less likely to embrace agroforestry approaches when they fear losing their land, particularly when it becomes "improved" or "productive" (Deininger et al., 2008; Gebreegziabher et al., 2016). For example, farmers in the Tigray region are frequently hesitant to plant trees on community grazing property because of the possibility of future land redistribution, according to Gebre egziabher et al. (2016). Furthermore, many smallholders are in limbo regarding their tenure because land certification initiatives have not been equally covered (Holden et al., 2009).

Many farmers and even some extension agents lack the technical know-how and expertise necessary to properly set up and maintain agroforestry systems. In Ethiopia, traditional extension services have traditionally concentrated on cereal-based agriculture and monocropping, with little incorporation of tree- based systems (Kindu et al., 2014). Extension personnel continue to get inadequate training on tree selection, pruning, spacing, and agricultural integration (Tadesse et al., 2016). Because of this, farmers frequently plant unsuitable species, which causes crop competition and ultimately results in the abandonment of agroforestry operations.

The capacity of smallholders to sell agroforestry products like fruits, honey, lumber, and medicinal plants is hampered by inadequate road networks, a lack of organized value chains, and limited market infrastructure. As a result, farmers have fewer financial incentives to invest in agroforestry (Linger, 2014; FAO, 2013). Mekonnen et al. (2014) point out that despite an increase in fruit yield from agroforestry, post-harvest losses are still substantial because of inadequate storage and restricted access to urban markets. Additionally, the commercialization of high-value agroforestry products is hindered by the lack of buyer networks and price information.

Benefits from tree-based systems, including fruit, lumber, or increased soil fertility, frequently take years to materialize. Given their immediate requirements for food and revenue, smallholder farmers may find this wait to be a significant deterrent (Kuyah et al., 2016; Mbow et al., 2014). Without temporary incentives or assistance, many smallholders leave agroforestry plots before the trees reach maturity, according to Kuyah et al. (2016). Additionally, because yearly cropping systems yield faster financial returns, risk- averse consumers find them more appealing.

Particularly in Ethiopia's dry and semi-arid regions, agroforestry systems are also susceptible to climate- related pressures like drought, pest outbreaks, and unpredictable rainfall. In addition to increasing competition between trees and crops for water, extended droughts can lower tree productivity and seedling survival (Duguma et al., 2019). For instance, during prolonged dry spells, Kindu et al. (2014) noted a decrease in tree survival rates in the central highlands. Moreover, flowering and fruiting cycles are impacted by climate variability, which consequently affects food security and agroforestry- based revenue.

Even while national programs like the CRGE and FSDP mention agroforestry, its implementation is frequently dispersed across several entities (MoA, 2020). Insufficient coordination across the environmental, forestry, and agricultural sectors results in inconsistent policies and wasteful resource utilization (FAO, 2013). FAO (2013) noted that there is no clear institutional home for agroforestry in Ethiopia, and duties are frequently divided between federal ministries and provincial bureaus without explicit directives. This fragmentation makes it more difficult to provide monitoring, incentive programs, and cogent extension services for the promotion of agroforestry.

Strong cooperation between farmers, agricultural extension agencies, and research institutions is essential for the successful development of agroforestry. Nonetheless, Ethiopia's present farmer- extension-research ties are still weak and ill- coordinated (Kindu et al., 2014; Tadesse et al., 2016). Co-creation and distribution of locally relevant agroforestry technology and practices will be ensured by fortifying this connection. According to Tadesse et al. (2016), agroforestry innovations are more likely to be adopted when farmers are involved in trial designs and demonstration sites. Organizations that are well- positioned to facilitate these kinds of partnerships include ICRAF (World Agroforestry) and EEFRI (Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute). Enhancing farmer access to technical knowledge and innovations can be achieved through the promotion of farmer field schools (FFS), farmer- research-extension platforms (FREPs), and digital agroforestry advising tools (FAO, 2013).

To encourage farmer investment, it is essential to create inclusive and functional value chains for agroforestry goods like fruits, honey, timber, and medicinal plants. Agroforestry systems can become more profitable by enhancing post-harvest handling, storage, market accessibility, and processing capability (Linger, 2014; Mekonnen et al., 2014). In Ethiopia's arid regions, Gebrehiwot et al. (2016) highlight the potential of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) such as honey and frankincense, where agroforestry systems can be connected to export and niche markets. Local employment and incomes would also be improved by the creation of small businesses and local cooperatives for the processing and packaging of agroforestry goods.

The degraded highlands and dry areas of Ethiopia can benefit greatly from agroforestry's transformative power in watershed management and sustainable landscape restoration. Agroforestry can optimize its ecosystem and livelihood advantages by being incorporated into integrated land use plans, soil and water conservation initiatives, and exclosure rehabilitation programs (Kindu et al., 2014; Duguma et al., 2019). In watershed-level interventions, agroforestry has already been integrated into the government's Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP). Cross-sectoral collaboration, long- term monitoring, and strong planning tools will be necessary to scale up similar approaches in additional areas (GIZ, 2019). Additionally, as part of climate- resilient agriculture, agroforestry improves groundwater recharge and protects delicate ecosystems from erosion.

Expanding agroforestry requires a steady and locally appropriate supply of tree seedlings and germplasm. Cooperatives, youth organizations, or women's associations run community-based nurseries that create jobs locally and offer reasonably priced planting supplies (FAO, 2013; GIZ, 2019). According to Linger (2014), agroforestry adoption was facilitated by nurseries associated with watershed restoration initiatives in Amhara and Tigray, which expanded availability to native and quickly growing tree species. Sustainability requires strengthening seed systems, especially for high-value species (such Moringa, Cordia, and Faidherbia), and creating standards for quality control. The performance of these grassroots projects will be further improved by government assistance in the form of technical training, credit, and infrastructure (such as water access for nurseries).

Agroforestry is in line with the goals of the global climate, which include land restoration, ecosystem- based adaptation, and carbon sequestration. However, Ethiopia hasn't made the most of climate finance instruments to expand its agroforestry. There are opportunities to integrate agroforestry into national climate action plans to mobilize finance from the Adaptation Fund, REDD+ programs, and the Green Climate Fund (GCF) (FDRE, 2021; Duguma et al., 2019). Carbon credits and payments for ecosystem services (PES) can be obtained by measuring and confirming the carbon benefits of agroforestry systems (Lasco et al., 2014). Agroforestry is already acknowledged in Ethiopia's CRGE strategy and Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs); therefore, future initiatives should give priority to agroforestry projects that are measurable, reportable, and verifiable (MRV-compliant).